NAME
perlsyn - Perl syntax: declarations, statements, comments
DESCRIPTION
A Perl program consists of a sequence of declarations and statements which run from the top to the bottom. Loops, subroutines, and other control structures allow you to jump around within the code.
Perl is a free-form language: you can format and indent it however you like. Whitespace serves mostly to separate tokens, unlike languages like Python where it is an important part of the syntax, or Fortran where it is immaterial.
Many of Perl's syntactic elements are optional. Rather than requiring you to put parentheses around every function call and declare every variable, you can often leave such explicit elements off and Perl will figure out what you meant. This is known as Do What I Mean, abbreviated DWIM. It allows programmers to be lazy and to code in a style with which they are comfortable.
Perl borrows syntax and concepts from many languages: awk, sed, C, Bourne Shell, Smalltalk, Lisp and even English. Other languages have borrowed syntax from Perl, particularly its regular expression extensions. So if you have programmed in another language you will see familiar pieces in Perl. They often work the same, but see perltrap for information about how they differ.
Declarations
The only things you need to declare in Perl are report formats and subroutines (and sometimes not even subroutines). A scalar variable holds the undefined value (undef) until it has been assigned a defined value, which is anything other than undef. When used as a number, undef is treated as 0; when used as a string, it is treated as the empty string, ""; and when used as a reference that isn't being assigned to, it is treated as an error. If you enable warnings, you'll be notified of an uninitialized value whenever you treat undef as a string or a number. Well, usually. Boolean contexts, such as:
if ($x) {}are exempt from warnings (because they care about truth rather than definedness). Operators such as ++, --, +=, -=, and .=, that operate on undefined variables such as:
undef $x;
$x++;are also always exempt from such warnings.
A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on the execution of the primary sequence of statements: declarations all take effect at compile time. All declarations are typically put at the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using lexically-scoped private variables created with my(), state(), or our(), you'll have to make sure your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope as the my() if you expect to be able to access those private variables.
Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a subroutine without defining it by saying sub name, thus:
sub myname;
$me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname";A bare declaration like that declares the function to be a list operator, not a unary operator, so you have to be careful to use parentheses (or or instead of ||.) The || operator binds too tightly to use after list operators; it becomes part of the last element. You can always use parentheses around the list operators arguments to turn the list operator back into something that behaves more like a function call. Alternatively, you can use the prototype ($) to turn the subroutine into a unary operator:
sub myname ($);
$me = myname $0 || die "can't get myname";That now parses as you'd expect, but you still ought to get in the habit of using parentheses in that situation. For more on prototypes, see perlsub.
Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the require statement or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a use statement. See perlmod for details on this.
A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually has both compile-time and run-time effects.
Comments
Text from a "#" character until the end of the line is a comment, and is ignored. Exceptions include "#" inside a string or regular expression.
Simple Statements
The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its side-effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case the semicolon is optional. But put the semicolon in anyway if the block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add another line. Note that there are operators like eval {}, sub {}, and do {} that look like compound statements, but aren't--they're just TERMs in an expression--and thus need an explicit termination when used as the last item in a statement.
Statement Modifiers
Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a SINGLE modifier, just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible modifiers are:
if EXPR
unless EXPR
while EXPR
until EXPR
for LIST
foreach LIST
when EXPRThe EXPR following the modifier is referred to as the "condition". Its truth or falsehood determines how the modifier will behave.
if executes the statement once if and only if the condition is true. unless is the opposite, it executes the statement unless the condition is true (that is, if the condition is false). See "Scalar values" in perldata for definitions of true and false.
print "Basset hounds got long ears" if length $ear >= 10;
go_outside() and play() unless $is_raining;The for(each) modifier is an iterator: it executes the statement once for each item in the LIST (with $_ aliased to each item in turn). There is no syntax to specify a C-style for loop or a lexically scoped iteration variable in this form.
print "Hello $_!\n" for qw(world Dolly nurse);while repeats the statement while the condition is true. Postfix while has the same magic treatment of some kinds of condition that prefix while has. until does the opposite, it repeats the statement until the condition is true (or while the condition is false):
# Both of these count from 0 to 10.
print $i++ while $i <= 10;
print $j++ until $j > 10;The while and until modifiers have the usual "while loop" semantics (conditional evaluated first), except when applied to a do-BLOCK (or to the Perl4 do-SUBROUTINE statement), in which case the block executes once before the conditional is evaluated.
This is so that you can write loops like:
do {
$line = <STDIN>;
...
} until !defined($line) || $line eq ".\n"See "do" in perlfunc. Note also that the loop control statements described later will NOT work in this construct, because modifiers don't take loop labels. Sorry. You can always put another block inside of it (for next/redo) or around it (for last) to do that sort of thing.
For next or redo, just double the braces:
do {{
next if $x == $y;
# do something here
}} until $x++ > $z;For last, you have to be more elaborate and put braces around it:
{
do {
last if $x == $y**2;
# do something here
} while $x++ <= $z;
}If you need both next and last, you have to do both and also use a loop label:
LOOP: {
do {{
next if $x == $y;
last LOOP if $x == $y**2;
# do something here
}} until $x++ > $z;
}NOTE: The behaviour of a my, state, or our modified with a statement modifier conditional or loop construct (for example, my $x if ...) is undefined. The value of the my variable may be undef, any previously assigned value, or possibly anything else. Don't rely on it. Future versions of perl might do something different from the version of perl you try it out on. Here be dragons.
Compound Statements
In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block. Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval).
But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces. We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK. Because enclosing braces are also the syntax for hash reference constructor expressions (see perlref), you may occasionally need to disambiguate by placing a ; immediately after an opening brace so that Perl realises the brace is the start of a block. You will more frequently need to disambiguate the other way, by placing a + immediately before an opening brace to force it to be interpreted as a hash reference constructor expression. It is considered good style to use these disambiguating mechanisms liberally, not only when Perl would otherwise guess incorrectly.
The following compound statements may be used to control flow:
if (EXPR) BLOCK
if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ...
if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
unless (EXPR) BLOCK
unless (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
unless (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ...
unless (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK
LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK
LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
LABEL for VAR (LIST) BLOCK
LABEL for VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
LABEL foreach (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK
LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
LABEL BLOCK
LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK
PHASE BLOCKAs of Perl 5.36, you can iterate over multiple values at a time by specifying a list of lexicals within parentheses:
LABEL for my (VAR, VAR) (LIST) BLOCK
LABEL for my (VAR, VAR) (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
LABEL foreach my (VAR, VAR) (LIST) BLOCK
LABEL foreach my (VAR, VAR) (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCKIf enabled by the try feature, the following may also be used
try BLOCK catch (VAR) BLOCK
try BLOCK catch (VAR) BLOCK finally BLOCKUnlike in C and Pascal, in Perl these are all defined in terms of BLOCKs, not statements. This means that the curly brackets are required--no dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without curly brackets, there are several other ways to do it. The following all do the same thing:
if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!" }
die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO);
open(FOO) || die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
open(FOO) ? () : die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
# a bit exotic, that last oneThe if statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which if an else goes with. If you use unless in place of if, the sense of the test is reversed. Like if, unless can be followed by else. unless can even be followed by one or more elsif statements, though you may want to think twice before using that particular language construct, as everyone reading your code will have to think at least twice before they can understand what's going on.
The while statement executes the block as long as the expression is true. The until statement executes the block as long as the expression is false. The LABEL is optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed by a colon. The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control statements next, last, and redo. If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically searching through your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the use warnings pragma or the -w flag.
If the condition expression of a while statement is based on any of a group of iterative expression types then it gets some magic treatment. The affected iterative expression types are readline, the <FILEHANDLE> input operator, readdir, glob, the <PATTERN> globbing operator, and each. If the condition expression is one of these expression types, then the value yielded by the iterative operator will be implicitly assigned to $_. If the condition expression is one of these expression types or an explicit assignment of one of them to a scalar, then the condition actually tests for definedness of the expression's value, not for its regular truth value.
If there is a continue BLOCK, it is always executed just before the conditional is about to be evaluated again. Thus it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been continued via the next statement.
When a block is preceded by a compilation phase keyword such as BEGIN, END, INIT, CHECK, or UNITCHECK, then the block will run only during the corresponding phase of execution. See perlmod for more details.
Extension modules can also hook into the Perl parser to define new kinds of compound statements. These are introduced by a keyword which the extension recognizes, and the syntax following the keyword is defined entirely by the extension. If you are an implementor, see "PL_keyword_plugin" in perlapi for the mechanism. If you are using such a module, see the module's documentation for details of the syntax that it defines.
Loop Control
The next command starts the next iteration of the loop:
LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
...
}The last command immediately exits the loop in question. The continue block, if any, is not executed:
LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
...
}The redo command restarts the loop block without evaluating the conditional again. The continue block, if any, is not executed. This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves about what was just input.
For example, when processing a file like /etc/termcap. If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you want to skip ahead and get the next record.
while (<>) {
chomp;
if (s/\\$//) {
$_ .= <>;
redo unless eof();
}
# now process $_
}which is Perl shorthand for the more explicitly written version:
LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) {
chomp($line);
if ($line =~ s/\\$//) {
$line .= <ARGV>;
redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)!
}
# now process $line
}Note that if there were a continue block on the above code, it would get executed only on lines discarded by the regex (since redo skips the continue block). A continue block is often used to reset line counters or m?pat? one-time matches:
# inspired by :1,$g/fred/s//WILMA/
while (<>) {
m?(fred)? && s//WILMA $1 WILMA/;
m?(barney)? && s//BETTY $1 BETTY/;
m?(homer)? && s//MARGE $1 MARGE/;
} continue {
print "$ARGV $.: $_";
close ARGV if eof; # reset $.
reset if eof; # reset ?pat?
}If the word while is replaced by the word until, the sense of the test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first iteration.
Loop control statements don't work in an if or unless, since they aren't loops. You can double the braces to make them such, though.
if (/pattern/) {{
last if /fred/;
next if /barney/; # same effect as "last",
# but doesn't document as well
# do something here
}}This is caused by the fact that a block by itself acts as a loop that executes once, see "Basic BLOCKs".
The form while/if BLOCK BLOCK, available in Perl 4, is no longer available. Replace any occurrence of if BLOCK by if (do BLOCK).
For Loops
Perl's C-style for loop works like the corresponding while loop; that means that this:
for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) {
...
}is the same as this:
$i = 1;
while ($i < 10) {
...
} continue {
$i++;
}There is one minor difference: if variables are declared with my in the initialization section of the for, the lexical scope of those variables is exactly the for loop (the body of the loop and the control sections). To illustrate:
my $i = 'samba';
for (my $i = 1; $i <= 4; $i++) {
print "$i\n";
}
print "$i\n";when executed, gives:
1
2
3
4
sambaAs a special case, if the test in the for loop (or the corresponding while loop) is empty, it is treated as true. That is, both
for (;;) {
...
}and
while () {
...
}are treated as infinite loops.
Besides the normal array index looping, for can lend itself to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to hang.
$on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT;
sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty }
for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) {
# do something
}The condition expression of a for loop gets the same magic treatment of readline et al that the condition expression of a while loop gets.
Foreach Loops
The foreach loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the scalar variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable is preceded with the keyword my, then it is lexically scoped, and is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting the loop. If the variable was previously declared with my, it uses that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to the loop. This implicit localization occurs only for non C-style loops.
The foreach keyword is actually a synonym for the for keyword, so you can use either. If VAR is omitted, $_ is set to each value.
If any element of LIST is an lvalue, you can modify it by modifying VAR inside the loop. Conversely, if any element of LIST is NOT an lvalue, any attempt to modify that element will fail. In other words, the foreach loop index variable is an implicit alias for each item in the list that you're looping over.
If any part of LIST is an array, foreach will get very confused if you add or remove elements within the loop body, for example with splice. So don't do that.
foreach probably won't do what you expect if VAR is a tied or other special variable. Don't do that either.
As of Perl 5.22, there is an experimental variant of this loop that accepts a variable preceded by a backslash for VAR, in which case the items in the LIST must be references. The backslashed variable will become an alias to each referenced item in the LIST, which must be of the correct type. The variable needn't be a scalar in this case, and the backslash may be followed by my. To use this form, you must enable the refaliasing feature via use feature. (See feature. See also "Assigning to References" in perlref.)
As of Perl 5.36, you can iterate over multiple values at a time. You can only iterate with lexical scalars as the iterator variables - unlike list assignment, it's not possible to use undef to signify a value that isn't wanted. This is a limitation of the current implementation, and might be changed in the future.
If the size of the LIST is not an exact multiple of the number of iterator variables, then on the last iteration the "excess" iterator variables are aliases to undef, as if the LIST had , undef appended as many times as needed for its length to become an exact multiple. This happens whether LIST is a literal LIST or an array - i.e. arrays are not extended if their size is not a multiple of the iteration size, consistent with iterating an array one-at-a-time. As these padding elements are not lvalues, attempting to modify them will fail, consistent with the behaviour when iterating a list with literal undefs. If this is not the behaviour you desire, then before the loop starts either explicitly extend your array to be an exact multiple, or explicitly throw an exception.
Examples:
for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ }
for my $elem (@elements) {
$elem *= 2;
}
for $count (reverse(1..10), "BOOM") {
print $count, "\n";
sleep(1);
}
for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; }
foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) {
print "Item: $item\n";
}
use feature "refaliasing";
no warnings "experimental::refaliasing";
foreach \my %hash (@array_of_hash_references) {
# do something with each %hash
}
foreach my ($foo, $bar, $baz) (@list) {
# do something three-at-a-time
}
foreach my ($key, $value) (%hash) {
# iterate over the hash
# The hash is immediately copied to a flat list before the loop
# starts. The list contains copies of keys but aliases of values.
# This is the same behaviour as for $var (%hash) {...}
}Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl:
for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) {
for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) {
if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) {
last; # can't go to outer :-(
}
$ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j];
}
# this is where that last takes me
}Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might do it:
OUTER: for my $wid (@ary1) {
INNER: for my $jet (@ary2) {
next OUTER if $wid > $jet;
$wid += $jet;
}
}See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be accidentally executed. The next explicitly iterates the other loop rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because Perl executes a foreach statement more rapidly than it would the equivalent C-style for loop.
Perceptive Perl hackers may have noticed that a for loop has a return value, and that this value can be captured by wrapping the loop in a do block. The reward for this discovery is this cautionary advice: The return value of a for loop is unspecified and may change without notice. Do not rely on it.
Try Catch Exception Handling
The try/catch syntax provides control flow relating to exception handling. The try keyword introduces a block which will be executed when it is encountered, and the catch block provides code to handle any exception that may be thrown by the first.
This syntax must first be enabled with use feature 'try'.
use feature 'try';
try {
my $x = call_a_function();
$x < 100 or die "Too big";
send_output($x);
}
catch ($e) {
warn "Unable to output a value; $e";
}
print "Finished\n";Here, the body of the catch block (i.e. the warn statement) will be executed if the initial block invokes the conditional die, or if either of the functions it invokes throws an uncaught exception. The catch block can inspect the $e lexical variable in this case to see what the exception was. If no exception was thrown then the catch block does not happen. In either case, execution will then continue from the following statement - in this example the print.
The catch keyword must be immediately followed by a variable declaration in parentheses, which introduces a new variable visible to the body of the subsequent block. Inside the block this variable will contain the exception value that was thrown by the code in the try block. It is not necessary to use the my keyword to declare this variable; this is implied (similar as it is for subroutine signatures).
Both the try and the catch blocks are permitted to contain control-flow expressions, such as return, goto, or next/last/redo. In all cases they behave as expected without warnings. In particular, a return expression inside the try block will make its entire containing function return - this is in contrast to its behaviour inside an eval block, where it would only make that block return.
Like other control-flow syntax, try and catch will yield the last evaluated value when placed as the final statement in a function or a do block. This permits the syntax to be used to create a value. In this case remember not to use the return expression, or that will cause the containing function to return.
my $value = do {
try {
get_thing(@args);
}
catch ($e) {
warn "Unable to get thing - $e";
$DEFAULT_THING;
}
};As with other control-flow syntax, try blocks are not visible to caller() (just as for example, while or foreach loops are not). Successive levels of the caller result can see subroutine calls and eval blocks, because those affect the way that return would work. Since try blocks do not intercept return, they are not of interest to caller.
The try and catch blocks may optionally be followed by a third block introduced by the finally keyword. This third block is executed after the rest of the construct has finished.
try {
call_a_function();
}
catch ($e) {
warn "Unable to call; $e";
}
finally {
print "Finished\n";
}The finally block is equivalent to using a defer block and will be invoked in the same situations; whether the try block completes successfully, throws an exception, or transfers control elsewhere by using return, a loop control, or goto.
Unlike the try and catch blocks, a finally block is not permitted to return, goto or use any loop controls. The final expression value is ignored, and does not affect the return value of the containing function even if it is placed last in the function.
Use of this finally block syntax is currently experimental and will emit a warning in the experimental::try category.
Basic BLOCKs
A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is NOT true in eval{}, sub{}, or, contrary to popular belief, do{} blocks, which do NOT count as loops.) The continue block is optional.
The BLOCK construct can be used to emulate case structures.
SWITCH: {
if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
$nothing = 1;
}You'll also find that foreach loop used to create a topicalizer and a switch:
SWITCH:
for ($var) {
if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
$nothing = 1;
}Such constructs are quite frequently used, both because Perl has no official switch statement.
defer blocks
A block prefixed by the defer modifier provides a section of code which runs at a later time during scope exit.
A defer block can appear at any point where a regular block or other statement is permitted. If the flow of execution reaches this statement, the body of the block is stored for later, but not invoked immediately. When the flow of control leaves the containing block for any reason, this stored block is executed on the way past. It provides a means of deferring execution until a later time. This acts similarly to syntax provided by some other languages, often using keywords named try / finally.
This syntax is available since Perl 5.36 if enabled by the defer named feature, and is currently experimental. If experimental warnings are enabled it will emit a warning when used.
use feature 'defer';
{
say "This happens first";
defer { say "This happens last"; }
say "And this happens inbetween";
}If multiple defer blocks are contained in a single scope, they are executed in LIFO order; the last one reached is the first one executed.
The code stored by the defer block will be invoked when control leaves its containing block due to regular fallthrough, explicit return, exceptions thrown by die or propagated by functions called by it, goto, or any of the loop control statements next, last or redo.
If the flow of control does not reach the defer statement itself then its body is not stored for later execution. (This is in direct contrast to the code provided by an END phaser block, which is always enqueued by the compiler, regardless of whether execution ever reached the line it was given on.)
use feature 'defer';
{
defer { say "This will run"; }
return;
defer { say "This will not"; }
}Exceptions thrown by code inside a defer block will propagate to the caller in the same way as any other exception thrown by normal code.
If the defer block is being executed due to a thrown exception and throws another one it is not specified what happens, beyond that the caller will definitely receive an exception.
Besides throwing an exception, a defer block is not permitted to otherwise alter the control flow of its surrounding code. In particular, it may not cause its containing function to return, nor may it goto a label, or control a containing loop using next, last or redo. These constructions are however, permitted entirely within the body of the defer.
use feature 'defer';
{
defer {
foreach ( 1 .. 5 ) {
last if $_ == 3; # this is permitted
}
}
}
{
foreach ( 6 .. 10 ) {
defer {
last if $_ == 8; # this is not
}
}
}Switch Statements
Switch statements were removed in Perl 5.42.
Goto
Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a goto statement. There are three forms: goto-LABEL, goto-EXPR, and goto-&NAME. A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for a goto; it's just the name of the loop.
The goto-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a foreach loop. It also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope, including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other construct such as last or die. The author of Perl has never felt the need to use this form of goto (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
The goto-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved dynamically. This allows for computed gotos per FORTRAN, but isn't necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
goto(("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i]);The goto-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by AUTOLOAD() subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place (except that any modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are propagated to the other subroutine.) After the goto, not even caller() will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the structured control flow mechanisms of next, last, or redo instead of resorting to a goto. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of eval{} and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach.
The Ellipsis Statement
Beginning in Perl 5.12, Perl accepts an ellipsis, "...", as a placeholder for code that you haven't implemented yet. When Perl 5.12 or later encounters an ellipsis statement, it parses this without error, but if and when you should actually try to execute it, Perl throws an exception with the text Unimplemented:
use v5.12;
sub unimplemented { ... }
eval { unimplemented() };
if ($@ =~ /^Unimplemented at /) {
say "I found an ellipsis!";
}You can only use the elliptical statement to stand in for a complete statement. Syntactically, "...;" is a complete statement, but, as with other kinds of semicolon-terminated statement, the semicolon may be omitted if "..." appears immediately before a closing brace. These examples show how the ellipsis works:
use v5.12;
{ ... }
sub foo { ... }
...;
eval { ... };
sub somemeth {
my $self = shift;
...;
}
$x = do {
my $n;
...;
say "Hurrah!";
$n;
};The elliptical statement cannot stand in for an expression that is part of a larger statement. These examples of attempts to use an ellipsis are syntax errors:
use v5.12;
print ...;
open(my $fh, ">", "/dev/passwd") or ...;
if ($condition && ... ) { say "Howdy" };
... if $x > $y;
say "Cromulent" if ...;
$flub = 5 + ...;There are some cases where Perl can't immediately tell the difference between an expression and a statement. For instance, the syntax for a block and an anonymous hash reference constructor look the same unless there's something in the braces to give Perl a hint. The ellipsis is a syntax error if Perl doesn't guess that the { ... } is a block. Inside your block, you can use a ; before the ellipsis to denote that the { ... } is a block and not a hash reference constructor.
Note: Some folks colloquially refer to this bit of punctuation as a "yada-yada" or "triple-dot", but its true name is actually an ellipsis.
PODs: Embedded Documentation
Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code. While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this
=head1 Here There Be Pods!Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line beginning with =cut will be ignored. The format of the intervening text is described in perlpod.
This allows you to intermix your source code and your documentation text freely, as in
=item snazzle($)
The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular
form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting
cybernetic pyrotechnics.
=cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff!
sub snazzle($) {
my $thingie = shift;
.........
}Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be ignored by both the compiler and the translators.
$x=3;
=secret stuff
warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?"
=cut back
print "got $x\n";You probably shouldn't rely upon the warn() being podded out forever. Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps the compiler will become pickier.
One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section of code.
Plain Old Comments (Not!)
Perl can process line directives, much like the C preprocessor. Using this, one can control Perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed with eval()). The syntax for this mechanism is almost the same as for most C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression
# example: '# line 42 "new_filename.plx"'
/^\# \s*
line \s+ (\d+) \s*
(?:\s("?)([^"]+)\g2)? \s*
$/xwith $1 being the line number for the next line, and $3 being the optional filename (specified with or without quotes). Note that no whitespace may precede the #, unlike modern C preprocessors.
There is a fairly obvious gotcha included with the line directive: Debuggers and profilers will only show the last source line to appear at a particular line number in a given file. Care should be taken not to cause line number collisions in code you'd like to debug later.
Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command shell:
% perl
# line 200 "bzzzt"
# the '#' on the previous line must be the first char on line
die 'foo';
__END__
foo at bzzzt line 201.
% perl
# line 200 "bzzzt"
eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
__END__
foo at - line 2001.
% perl
eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
__END__
foo at foo bar line 200.
% perl
# line 345 "goop"
eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'";
print $@;
__END__
foo at goop line 345.