NAME
Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve -- triangular dragon curve
SYNOPSIS
use Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve;
my $path = Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve->new;
my ($x, $y) = $path->n_to_xy (123);DESCRIPTION
This is the terdragon curve by Davis and Knuth,
Chandler Davis and Donald Knuth, "Number Representations and Dragon Curves -- I", Journal Recreational Mathematics, volume 3, number 2 (April 1970), pages 66-81 and "Number Representations and Dragon Curves -- II", volume 3, number 3 (July 1970), pages 133-149.
Reprinted with addendum in Knuth "Selected Papers on Fun and Games", 2010, pages 571--614. http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/fg.html
Points are a triangular grid using every second integer X,Y as per "Triangular Lattice" in Math::PlanePath, beginning
\ / \
--- 26,29,32 ---------- 27 6
/ \
\ / \
-- 24,33,42 ---------- 22,25 5
/ \ / \
\ / \
--- 20,23,44 -------- 12,21 10 4
/ \ / \ / \
\ / \ / \ / \
18,45 --------- 13,16,19 ------ 8,11,14 -------- 9 3
\ / \ / \
\ / \ / \
17 6,15 --------- 4,7 2
\ / \
\ / \
2,5 ---------- 3 1
\
\
0 ----------- 1 <-Y=0
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
-3 -2 -1 X=0 1 2 3The base figure is an "S" shape
2-----3
\
\
0-----1which then repeats in self-similar style, so N=3 to N=6 is a copy rotated +120 degrees, which is the angle of the N=1 to N=2 edge,
6 4 base figure repeats
\ / \ as N=3 to N=6,
\/ \ rotated +120 degrees
5 2----3
\
\
0-----1Then N=6 to N=9 is a plain horizontal, which is the angle of N=2 to N=3,
8-----9 base figure repeats
\ as N=6 to N=9,
\ no rotation
6----7,4
\ / \
\ / \
5,2----3
\
\
0-----1Notice X=1,Y=1 is visited twice as N=2 and N=5. Similarly X=2,Y=2 as N=4 and N=7. Each point can repeat up to 3 times. "Inner" points are 3 times and on the edges up to 2 times. The first tripled point is X=1,Y=3 which as shown above is N=8, N=11 and N=14.
The curve never crosses itself. The vertices touch as triangular corners and no edges repeat.
The curve turns are the same as the GosperSide, but here the turns are by 120 degrees each whereas GosperSide is 60 degrees each. The extra angle here tightens up the shape.
Spiralling
The first step N=1 is to the right along the X axis and the path then slowly spirals anti-clockwise and progressively fatter. The end of each replication is
Nlevel = 3^levelThat point is at level*30 degrees around (as reckoned with Y*sqrt(3) for a triangular grid).
Nlevel X, Y Angle (degrees)
------ ------- -----
1 1, 0 0
3 3, 1 30
9 3, 3 60
27 0, 6 90
81 -9, 9 120
243 -27, 9 150
729 -54, 0 180The following is points N=0 to N=3^6=729 going half-circle around to 180 degrees. The N=0 origin is marked "0" and the N=729 end is marked "E".
* * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0 *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * *
* * * *Tiling
The little "S" shapes of the base figure N=0 to N=3 can be thought of as a rhombus
2-----3
. .
. .
0-----1The "S" shapes of each 3 points make a tiling of the plane with those rhombi
\ \ / / \ \ / /
*-----*-----* *-----*-----*
/ / \ \ / / \ \
\ / / \ \ / / \ \ /
--*-----* *-----*-----* *-----*--
/ \ \ / / \ \ / / \
\ \ / / \ \ / /
*-----*-----* *-----*-----*
/ / \ \ / / \ \
\ / / \ \ / / \ \ /
--*-----* *-----o-----* *-----*--
/ \ \ / / \ \ / / \
\ \ / / \ \ / /
*-----*-----* *-----*-----*
/ / \ \ / / \ \Which is an ancient pattern,
Arms
The curve fills a sixth of the plane and six copies rotated by 60, 120, 180, 240 and 300 degrees mesh together perfectly. The arms parameter can choose 1 to 6 such curve arms successively advancing.
For example arms => 6 begins as follows. N=0,6,12,18,etc is the first arm (the same shape as the plain curve above), then N=1,7,13,19 the second, N=2,8,14,20 the third, etc.
\ / \ /
\ / \ /
--- 8,13,31 ---------------- 7,12,30 ---
/ \ / \
\ / \ / \ /
\ / \ / \ /
--- 9,14,32 ------------- 0,1,2,3,4,5 -------------- 6,17,35 ---
/ \ / \ / \
/ \ / \ / \
\ / \ /
--- 10,15,33 ---------------- 11,16,34 ---
/ \ / \
/ \ / \With six arms every X,Y point is visited three times, except the origin 0,0 where all six begin. Every edge between points is traversed once.
FUNCTIONS
See "FUNCTIONS" in Math::PlanePath for behaviour common to all path classes.
$path = Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve->new ()$path = Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve->new (arms => 6)-
Create and return a new path object.
The optional
armsparameter can make 1 to 6 copies of the curve, each arm successively advancing. ($x,$y) = $path->n_to_xy ($n)-
Return the X,Y coordinates of point number
$non the path. Points begin at 0 and if$n < 0then the return is an empty list.Fractional positions give an X,Y position along a straight line between the integer positions.
$n = $path->xy_to_n ($x,$y)-
Return the point number for coordinates
$x,$y. If there's nothing at$x,$ythen returnundef.The curve can visit an
$x,$yup to three times.xy_to_n()returns the smallest of the these N values. @n_list = $path->xy_to_n_list ($x,$y)-
Return a list of N point numbers for coordinates
$x,$y.The origin 0,0 has
arms_count()many N since it's the starting point for each arm. Other points have up to 3 Ns for a given$x,$y. If arms=6 then every even$x,$yexcept the origin has exactly 3 Ns.
Descriptive Methods
$n = $path->n_start()-
Return 0, the first N in the path.
$dx = $path->dx_minimum()$dx = $path->dx_maximum()$dy = $path->dy_minimum()$dy = $path->dy_maximum()-
The dX,dY values on the first arm take three possible combinations, being 120 degree angles.
dX,dY for arms=1 ----- 2, 0 dX minimum = -1, maximum = +2 -1, 1 dY minimum = -1, maximum = +1 1,-1For 2 or more arms the second arm is rotated by 60 degrees so giving the following additional combinations, for a total six. This changes the dX minimum.
dX,dY for arms=2 or more ----- -2, 0 dX minimum = -2, maximum = +2 1, 1 dY minimum = -1, maximum = +1 -1,-1
Level Methods
($n_lo, $n_hi) = $path->level_to_n_range($level)-
Return
(0, 3**$level), or for multiple arms return(0, $arms * 3**$level + ($arms-1)).There are 3^level segments in a curve level, so 3^level+1 points numbered from 0. For multiple arms there are arms*(3^level+1) points, numbered from 0 so n_hi = arms*(3^level+1)-1.
FORMULAS
Various formulas for boundary length, area and more can be found in the author's mathematical write-up
N to X,Y
There's no reversals or reflections in the curve so n_to_xy() can take the digits of N either low to high or high to low and apply what is effectively powers of the N=3 position. The current code goes low to high using i,j,k coordinates as described in "Triangular Calculations" in Math::PlanePath.
si = 1 # position of endpoint N=3^level
sj = 0 # where level=number of digits processed
sk = 0
i = 0 # position of N for digits so far processed
j = 0
k = 0
loop base 3 digits of N low to high
if digit == 0
i,j,k no change
if digit == 1
(i,j,k) = (si-j, sj-k, sk+i) # rotate +120, add si,sj,sk
if digit == 2
i -= sk # add (si,sj,sk) rotated +60
j += si
k += sj
(si,sj,sk) = (si - sk, # add rotated +60
sj + si,
sk + sj)The digit handling is a combination of rotate and offset,
digit==1 digit 2
rotate and offset offset at si,sj,sk rotated
^ 2------>
\
\ \
*--- --1 *-- --*The calculation can also be thought of in term of w=1/2+I*sqrt(3)/2, a complex number sixth root of unity. i is the real part, j in the w direction (60 degrees), and k in the w^2 direction (120 degrees). si,sj,sk increase as if multiplied by w+1.
Turn
At each point N the curve always turns 120 degrees either to the left or right, it never goes straight ahead. If N is written in ternary then the lowest non-zero digit gives the turn
ternary lowest
non-zero digit turn
-------------- -----
1 left
2 rightAt N=3^level or N=2*3^level the turn follows the shape at that 1 or 2 point. The first and last unit step in each level are in the same direction, so the next level shape gives the turn.
2*3^k-------3*3^k
\
\
0-------1*3^kNext Turn
The next turn, ie. the turn at position N+1, can be calculated from the ternary digits of N similarly. The lowest non-2 digit gives the turn.
ternary lowest
non-2 digit turn
-------------- -----
0 left
1 rightIf N is all 2s then the lowest non-2 is taken to be a 0 above the high end. For example N=8 is 22 ternary so considered 022 for lowest non-2 digit=0 and turn left after the segment at N=8, ie. at point N=9 turn left.
This rule works for the same reason as the plain turn above. The next turn of N is the plain turn of N+1 and adding +1 turns trailing 2s into trailing 0s and increments the 0 or 1 digit above them to be 1 or 2.
Total Turn
The direction at N, ie. the total cumulative turn, is given by the number of 1 digits when N is written in ternary,
direction = (count 1s in ternary N) * 120 degreesFor example N=12 is ternary 110 which has two 1s so the cumulative turn at that point is 2*120=240 degrees, ie. the segment N=16 to N=17 is at angle 240.
The segments for digit 0 or 2 are in the "current" direction unchanged. The segment for digit 1 is rotated +120 degrees.
X,Y to N
The current code find digits of N low to high by a remainder on X,Y to get the lowest then subtract and divide to unexpand. See "unpoint" in the author's mathematical write-up for details.
X,Y Visited
When arms=6 all "even" points of the plane are visited. As per the triangular representation of X,Y this means
X+Y mod 2 == 0 "even" pointsOEIS
The terdragon is in Sloane's Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences as,
http://oeis.org/A080846 (etc)
A060236 turn 1=left,2=right, by 120 degrees
(lowest non-zero ternary digit)
A137893 turn 1=left,0=right (morphism)
A189640 turn 0=left,1=right (morphism, extra initial 0)
A080846 next turn 0=left,1=right, by 120 degrees
(n=0 is turn at N=1)
A189673 prev turn 1=left,0=right (morphism, extra initial 0)
A038502 strip trailing ternary 0s,
taken mod 3 is turn 1=left,2=right
A133162 1=segment, 2=right turn betweenA189673 and A026179 start with extra initial values arising from their morphism definition. That can be skipped to consider the turns starting with a left turn at N=1.
A026225 N positions of left turns,
being (3*i+1)*3^j so lowest non-zero digit is 1
A026179 N positions of right turns (except initial 1)
being (3*i+2)*3^j so lowest non-zero digit is 2
A060032 bignum turns 1=left,2=right to 3^level
A189674 num left turns 1 to N
A189641 num right turns 1 to N
A189672 same
A026141 \ dTurnLeft increment between left turns N
A026171 /
A026181 \ dTurnRight increment between right turns N
A131989 /
A062756 direction (net total turn), count ternary 1s
A005823 N positions where direction = 0, ternary no 1s
A023692 through A023698
N positions where direction = 1 to 7, ternary num 1s
A111286 boundary length, N=0 to N=3^k, skip initial 1
A003945 boundary/2
A002023 boundary odd levels N=0 to N=3^(2k+1),
or even levels one side N=0 to N=3^(2k),
being 6*4^k
A164346 boundary even levels N=0 to N=3^(2k),
or one side, odd levels, N=0 to N=3^(2k+1),
being 3*4^k
A042950 V[k] boundary length
A056182 area enclosed N=0 to N=3^k, being 2*(3^k-2^k)
A081956 same
A118004 1/2 area N=0 to N=3^(2k+1), odd levels, 9^n-4^n
A155559 join area, being 0 then 2^k
A099754 1/2 count distinct visited points N=0 to N=3^k
A092236 count East segments N=0 to N=3^k-1
A135254 count North-West segments N=0 to N=3^k-1, extra 0
A133474 count South-West segments N=0 to N=3^k-1
A057083 count segments diff from 3^(k-1)
A101990 count segments same dir as middle N=0 to N=3^k-1
A097038 num runs of 12 consecutive segments within N=0 to 3^k-1
each segment enclosing a new unit triangle
A057682 level X, at N=3^level
also arms=2 level Y, at N=2*3^level
A057083 level Y, at N=3^level
also arms=6 level X at N=6*3^level
A057681 arms=2 level X, at N=2*3^level
also arms=3 level Y at 3*3^level
A103312 sameHOUSE OF GRAPHS
House of Graphs entries for the terdragon as a graph include
19655 level=0 (1-segment path)
594 level=1 (3-segment path)
21138 level=2
21140 level=3
33761 level=4
33763 level=5SEE ALSO
Math::PlanePath, Math::PlanePath::TerdragonRounded, Math::PlanePath::TerdragonMidpoint, Math::PlanePath::GosperSide
Math::PlanePath::DragonCurve, Math::PlanePath::R5DragonCurve
Larry Riddle's Terdragon page, for boundary and area calculations of the terdragon as an infinite fractal http://ecademy.agnesscott.edu/~lriddle/ifs/heighway/terdragon.htm
HOME PAGE
http://user42.tuxfamily.org/math-planepath/index.html
LICENSE
Copyright 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 Kevin Ryde
This file is part of Math-PlanePath.
Math-PlanePath is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option) any later version.
Math-PlanePath is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with Math-PlanePath. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.